Exercise: Analysing Arguments for Fallacies

Analyse the following arguments and identify possible fallacies. Justify your answer and, where possible, suggest an improved version of the argument.

1. "Most successful entrepreneurs got up early. So if you want to be successful, you have to get up early."

2. "Either we support this war, or we allow terrorists to take over our country."

3. "Dr. Schmidt, a renowned biologist, says that this diet is the best. So we should all follow this diet."

4. "Since the new government came to power, the crime rate has risen. So the new government is responsible for the increase in crime."

5. "No one has proven that this alternative remedy does not work. So it must be effective."

6. "How can you be against this law? Do you want children to suffer?"

7. "Every part of this team is first-class. So the team as a whole is first-class."

8. "If we legalise abortion, we will soon legalise infanticide as well."

9. "You criticise my environmental policy, but your car uses a lot of petrol too!"

10. "The free market is the best economic system, because economic freedom is best."

Solutions:

1. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc / Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
   • Fallacy: A causal relationship (getting up early leads to success) is inferred from a correlation (successful entrepreneurs get up early).
   • Improved version: "Many successful entrepreneurs report that getting up early helps them be more productive. It might be worth trying out to see whether it works for you too."

2. False dichotomy
   • Fallacy: Only two extreme alternatives are presented, even though there are many other options.
   • Improved version: "There are various approaches to dealing with the threat of terrorism. We should weigh the pros and cons of military intervention against diplomatic, economic and other measures."

3. Argumentum ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Authority)
   • Fallacy: An expert's opinion is cited as the sole evidence, without any further justification.
   • Improved version: "Dr. Schmidt, a renowned biologist, recommends this diet on the basis of studies showing that it lowers cholesterol levels and reduces the risk of heart disease. These benefits could be relevant for people with corresponding health risks."

4. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
   • Fallacy: It is assumed that one event (the change of government) is the cause of a subsequent event (the rise in crime) merely because it preceded it in time.
   • Improved version: "Since the new government came to power, the crime rate has risen. We should investigate whether certain policy changes may have contributed to this increase, or whether other factors such as economic conditions or demographic changes are playing a role."

5. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance)
   • Fallacy: The absence of evidence against something is interpreted as evidence for it.
   • Improved version: "This alternative remedy has not yet been sufficiently studied scientifically. Before we can recommend it, we should wait for studies that demonstrate its effectiveness."

6. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity) / Loaded Question
   • Fallacy: An appeal is made to emotions, and the question contains the hidden assumption that the law helps children.
   • Improved version: "This law aims to protect children by providing for X, Y and Z. Do you have specific concerns about these measures or alternative proposals?"

7. Fallacy of composition
   • Fallacy: It is assumed that the properties of the parts (individual team members) necessarily transfer to the whole (the team).
   • Improved version: "Each member of this team is individually first-class. With good cooperation and coordination, we therefore have the potential to be a first-class team."

8. Slippery slope
   • Fallacy: It is claimed, without sufficient justification, that a first step will inevitably lead to an extreme consequence.
   • Improved version: "We should think carefully about the ethical implications of legalising abortion and establish clear limits and regulations."

9. Tu Quoque (You too)
   • Fallacy: Instead of addressing the criticism, the critic is accused of hypocrisy.
   • Improved version: "You are right that my environmental policy has room for improvement. Let us think together about how we can all reduce our ecological footprint."

10. Petitio Principii (Circular Reasoning)
    • Fallacy: The conclusion (the free market is the best system) is justified by a rephrasing of the same claim (economic freedom is best).
    • Improved version: "Studies show that countries with a free market tend to have a higher per-capita income, more innovation and greater economic mobility than countries with heavily regulated economic systems."