Summary

In this chapter we have dealt with manipulation and defence strategies:

• Manipulation techniques include emotional manipulation, social manipulation, information manipulation, linguistic manipulation, logical and argumentative manipulation, as well as psychological manipulation.

• Propaganda is a systematic form of manipulation with characteristic features such as oversimplification, emotionalisation, repetition, the construction of an enemy image, appeal to authority, selective choice of facts and peer pressure.

• Disinformation in the digital age manifests itself in the form of fake news, deepfakes, echo chambers and filter bubbles, as well as astroturfing and bots.

• Defence strategies against manipulation include developing critical thinking, strengthening information literacy, developing emotional awareness, building social resilience and developing digital media literacy.

• Critical thinking on social media requires specific strategies such as slow scrolling, active source checking, emotional pauses, conscious curation, the use of fact-checking tools, searching for context and reading images critically.

The ability to recognise manipulation and to resist it is an essential competence of critical thinking. In a world permeated by advertising, political propaganda, disinformation and subtle techniques of influence, critical thinking helps us to make informed and self-determined decisions.